Chapter SummaryThe Need for Psychological Science
The Limits of Intuition and Common SenseAlthough in some ways we outsmart the smartest computers, our intuition often goes awry. To err is human. Without scientific inquiry and critical thinking we readily succumb to hindsight bias, also called the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. Learning the outcome of a study (or of an everyday happening) can make it seem like obvious common sense. We also are routinely overconfident of our judgments, thanks partly to our bias to seek information that confirms them. Such biases lead us to overestimate our unaided intuition. Enter psychological science. Science, with its procedures for gathering and sifting evidence, restrains error. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, a scientific approach helps us sift reality from illusion, taking us beyond the limits of our intuition and common sense. The Scientific Attitude Scientific inquiry begins with an attitude—a curious eagerness to skeptically scrutinize competing ideas and an open-minded humility before nature. Putting ideas, even crazy-sounding ideas, to the test helps us winnow sense from nonsense. The curiosity that drives us to test ideas and to expose their underlying assumptions carries into everyday life as critical thinking. The Scientific Method Research stimulates the construction of theories, which organize observations and imply predictive hypotheses. These hypotheses (predictions) are then tested to validate and refine the theory and to suggest practical applications. Description The Case Study, the Survey, and Naturalistic Observation Through individual case studies, surveys among random samples of a population, and naturalistic observations, psychologists observe and describe behavior and mental processes. In generalizing from observations, remember: Representative samples are a better guide than vivid examples. Correlation Correlation and Causation The strength of the relationship between one factor and another is expressed as a number in their correlation coefficient. Scatterplots and the correlations they reveal help us to see relationships that the naked eye might miss. Knowing how closely two things are positively or negatively correlated tells us how much one predicts the other. But it is crucial to remember that correlation is a measure of relationship; it does not reveal cause and effect. Illusory Correlations and Perceiving Order in Random Events Correlations also help us to discount relationships that do not exist. Illusory correlations—random events we notice and assume are related—arise from our search for patterns. Experimentation Exploring Cause and EffectTo discover cause-and-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments. By constructing a controlled reality, experimenters can manipulate one or more factors and discover how these independent variables affect a particular behavior, the dependent variable. Evaluating Therapies In many experiments, control is achieved by randomly assigning people either to the experimental condition, the group exposed to the treatment, or to a control condition, a group that experiences no treatment or a different version of the treatment. Independent and Dependent Variables Experiments examine the effects of variables on one another in order to answer questions with a level of precision that allows others to repeat the study. The aim of an experiment is to manipulate an independent variable, measure the dependent variable, and control all other variables. Key TermsHindsight Bias - the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Critical Thinking - thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions. Theory - an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. Hypothesis - a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. Operational Definition - a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Replication - repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. Case Study - an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. Survey - a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them. False Consensus Effect - the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. Population - all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. Random Sample - a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. Naturalistic Observation - observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Correlation - a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Correlation does NOT prove causation. Scatterplot - a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). Illusory Correlation - the perception of a relationship where none exists. Experiment - a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. Double-Blind Procedure - an experimental procedure in which both the research participant and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Placebo Effect - experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent. Experimental Condition - the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Control Condition - the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. Random Assignment - assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. Independent Variable - the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Dependent Variable - the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. Mode - the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean - the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. Median - the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. Range - the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation - a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. Statistical Significance - a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. Culture - the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. |
Psych Sim 5 ActivitiesTricky Spots
The dependent variable depends on the independent variable to change. The independent variable manipulates the dependent variable. An independent variable is independent and does not change.
ExtrasClick the image for a better view. These microexpressions are taken from a show titled Lie To Me. Microexpressions are brief, involuntary facial expression shown on the face of humans according to emotions experienced. Through naturalistic observation, the characters of the show are able to detect deception.
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