Chapter SummaryThinking
Our cognitive system receives, perceives, and retrieves information, which we then use to think and communicate, sometimes wisely, sometimes foolishly. This chapter has explores how we form concepts, solve problems, and make judgments and decisions. Concepts Concepts simplify and order the world by organizing it into a hierarchy of categories. Concepts often form around prototypes, or best examples of a category. Matching objects and ideas with prototypes is an efficient way of making snap judgments about what belongs in a specific category. Solving Problems When faced with a novel situation for which no well-learned response will do, we may use such strategies as algorithms and heuristics. Sometimes the solution comes in a flash of insight. We do, however, face obstacles to successful problem solving. The confirmation bias predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses. And fixations, such as mental set and functional fixedness, may prevent our taking a needed fresh perspective on a problem. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Our use of heuristics, such as representativeness and availability, provides highly efficient but occasionally misleading guides for making quick decisions and forming intuitive judgments. Our tendencies to seek confirmation of our hypotheses and to use quick and easy heuristics can blind us to our vulnerability to error, a phenomenon known as overconfidence. And the way someone poses, or frames, a question affects our responses. Belief Bias We tend to show a belief bias in our reasoning, accepting as more logical those conclusions that agree with our beliefs. We also exhibit belief perseverance, clinging to our ideas because the explanation we accepted as valid lingers in the mind even after the basis for the ideas has been discredited. Yet despite our capacity for error and our susceptibility to bias, human cognition is remarkably efficient and adaptive. As we gain expertise in a field, we grow adept at making quick, shrewd judgments. Language Language Structure Language is built of phonemes (basic speech sounds), morphemes (elementary units of meaning), and the semantics (rules for deriving meaning) and syntax (rules for word order) that make up grammar. Language Development Among the marvels of nature is a child’s ability to acquire language. The ease with which children progress from the babbling stage through the one-word stage to the telegraphic speech of the two-word stage and beyond has sparked a lively debate concerning how they do it. Behaviorist B. F. Skinner proposed that we learn language by the familiar principles of association, reinforcement, and imitation. Challenging this claim, linguist Noam Chomsky argued that children are biologically prepared to learn words and use grammar. Cognitive neuroscientists emphasize that for mastery of grammar, the learning that occurs during life’s first few years, when the brain is building a dense network of neuronal connections, is critical. Thinking and Language We consider thinking and language in the same chapter, for they are hard to separate. Language Influences Thinking Words convey ideas, and different languages embody different ways of thinking. Although the linguistic relativity hypothesis suggested that language determines thought, it is more accurate to say that language influences thought. Studies of the effects of the generic pronoun he and the ability of vocabulary enrichment to enhance thinking reveal the influence of words. Thinking in Images We sometimes think in images rather than in words, and we invent new words or new combinations of old words to describe new ideas. So we might say that our thinking affects our language, which then affects our thought. Animal Thinking and Language Do Animals Think? Evidence accumulates that primates at some level form concepts, display insight, create and use tools, and transmit cultural innovations. Many researchers feel that great apes’ mental accomplishments rival those of a 2-year-old human. Do Animals Exhibit Language? Another vigorously debated issue is whether language is uniquely human. Animals obviously communicate. Bees, for example, communicate the location of food through an intricate combination of dance and sound. But can this form of communication be considered language? The Case of the Apes Our closest genetic relatives are the chimpanzees. Several teams of psychologists have taught various species of apes, including a number of chimpanzees, to communicate with humans by signing or by pushing buttons wired to a computer. Apes have developed considerable vocabularies. They string words together to express meaning and to make and follow requests. Skeptics point out important differences between apes’ and humans’ facilities with language, especially in their respective abilities to order words using proper syntax. Nevertheless, these studies reveal that apes have considerable cognitive ability. |
Key TermsCognition - the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Concept - a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. Prototype - a mental image or best example of a category. Algorithm - a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier -- but also more error-prone -- use of heuristics. Heuristic - a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. Insight - a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. Confirmation Bias - A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions. Fixation - the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. Mental Set - a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. Functional Fixedness - the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving. Representativeness Heuristic - judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information. Availability Heuristic - estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. Overconfidence - the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments. Framing - the way an issue is posed; how as issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Belief Bias - the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid. Belief Perseverance - clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. Language - our spoken written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. Phoneme - in a language the smallest distinctive sound unit. Morpheme - in a language the smallest unit that carries meaning. Grammar - in a language a system of rules that enables us to communicate and understand others. Semantics - the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes words and sentences in a given language also the study of meaning. Syntax - the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. Babbling Stage - beginning at about 4 months the stage of speech development from about age 1 to 2 during which a child speaks mostly in single words. Two-Word Stage - beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in 2 word statements. Telegraphic Speech - early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words. Linguistic Determinism - Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. Psych Sim 5 ActivitiesExtras
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